Retrovir

M. F. Gagnadoux, MD

  • Senior Consultant in Pediatric Nephrology,
  • Hopital Enfants Malades, Paris, France

The white matter consists of thousands of nerve cell fibers arranged in three areas external to the gray matter on each side medications similar to lyrica . Lippincot Company) Functions of the Spinal Cord the spinal cord is the link between the spinal nerves and the brain symptoms xylene poisoning . It is also a place where simple responses xanthine medications , known as reflexes can be coordinated even without involving the brain symptoms yeast infection women . The functions of the spinal cord may be divided into three categories: 162 Human Anatomy and Physiology 1. Conduction of motor impulses from the brain down through descending tracts to the efferent neurons that supply muscles or glands 3. When you fling out an arm or leg to catch your balance, withdraw from a painful stimulus, or blink to avoid an object approaching your eyes, you are experiencing reflex behaviour. A reflex pathway that passes through the spinal cord alone and does not involve the brain is termed a spinal reflex. The stretch reflex, in which a muscle is stretched and responds by contracting, is one example. If you tap the tendon below the kneecap (the patellar tendon), the muscles of the anterior thigh (quadriceps femoris) contracts, eliciting the knee jerk. Such stretch reflexes may be evoked by appropriate tapping of most large muscles (such as the triceps brachii in the arm and the gastrocnemius in the calf of the leg). Because reflexes occur automatically, they are used in physical examinations to test the condition of the nervous system. The meninges, spinal nerves, and sympathetic trunk are visible in the illustration (Source: Carola, R. Lippincot Company) 165 Human Anatomy and Physiology Figure 7-9 Flow of cerebrospinal fluid (Source: Carola, R. This system includes cranial and spinal nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord, respectively, to peripheral structures such as the skin surface and the skeletal muscles. These connect the brain and spinal cord to various glands in the body and to the cardiac and smooth muscle in the thorax and abdomen. Tracts are located within the brain and also within the spinal cord to conduct impulses to and from the brain. As with muscles, the "wires," or nerve cell fibers in a nerve, are bound together with connective tissue. A few of the cranial nerves have only sensory fibers for conducting impulses toward the brain. A few of the cranial nerves contain only motor fibers for conducing impulses away from the brain and are classified as motor, or efferent, nerves. However, the remainder of the cranial nerves and all of the spinal nerves contain both sensory and motor fibers and are referred to as mixed nerves. Cranial Nerves Location of the Cranial Nerves Cranial nerves are nerves that are attached to the brain. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves (henceforth, when a cranial nerve is identified, a pair is meant). They are numbered according to their connection with the brain; 168 Human Anatomy and Physiology beginning at the front and proceeding back (Figure 7-10). General Functions of the cranial nerves From the functional point of view, we may think of the kinds of messages the cranial nerves handle as belonging to one of four categories: 1. General sensory impulses, such as those for pain, touch, temperature, vibrations 3. Viscera motor impulses producing involuntary control of glands and involuntary muscles (cardiac and smooth muscle). These motor pathways are part pf the autonomic nervous system, parasympathetic division. The olfactory nerve they supply the olfactory mucous membrane in the upper part of the nasal cavity. The nerve fibres originate I the bipolar olfactory cells of the mucosa and join to form 15-20 olfactory bundles which pass through the cribiform plate of the ethmoid bone to reach the olfactory bulb.

Diseases

  • Rabson Mendenhall syndrome
  • Prieur Griscelli syndrome
  • Hanhart syndrome
  • Charcot Marie Tooth disease deafness mental retardation
  • Ichthyosis alopecia eclabion ectropion mental retardation
  • Simosa Penchaszadeh Bustos syndrome
  • Trichinellosis
  • Polyneuropathy mental retardation acromicria prema
  • Familial symmetric lipomatosis
  • Oliver McFarlane syndrome

Observations on morphology medications 142 , age and diet of three Architeuthis caught off the west coast of Ireland in 1995 medications you cant crush . Tentacle morphology of the giant squid Architeuthis from the North Atlantic and Pacific oceans medicine 0552 . Bathyteuthis abyssicola Hoyle symptoms mold exposure , 1885 Frequent synonyms / misidentifications: None / None. Buccal connectives attached to the dorsal borders of ventral arms, suckers on the buccal lappets. Arms shorts with suckers arranged in irregular rows (2 rows proximally increasing to 4 rows distally). Mantle length at first maturity is about 40 to 50 mm in females and 35 mm in males. Believed to undertake vertical migrations between lesser depths (up to 100 m) at nights and greater depths during the day. The photosensitive vesicles of Bathyteuthis appear to function in the detection of bioluminescent light organisms located outside the visual fields. Distribution: Although the exact limit boundary is partially unknown, it can be considered a cosmopolitan species, more frequent in the southern Ocean and productive waters of the eastern Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Systematics and Zoogeography of the worldwide bathypelagic squid genus Bathyteuthis (Cephalopoda: Oegopsida). Volume 1: Introduction, molluscs, crustaceans, hagfishes, sharks, batoid fishes and chimaeras. Dactylus of ten tacu lar clubs with quadriserial sucker but the car pal region is greatly expanded and carries numerous small suckers in many series. Light organs known only on eyes, where a single ventral light organ may be present. D Habitat, biology, and fisheries: Little is known about the biology of brachioteuthid squids although aggregations near the ocean floor, at depth of about 800 m, have been observed from submersibles. Remarks: While only 2 genera are presently recognized in this family, many species exist, most of which are not described. Similar families occurring in the area Ommastrephidae and Loliginidae: Ommastrephidae has T-shaped funnel locking apparatus; in Loliginidae the eye lens is covered by a cornea; neither of those families have numerous series of suckers in the carpal region of the tentacular clubs, a character shared with the Architeuthidae and the Neoteuthidae; in Neoteuthidae, the posterior edges of the fins are convex whereas in architeuthids the digestive gland abuts the cephalic cartilage. Mantle very narrow, widening slightly at anterior opening and tapering abruptly in front of fin; fin length and width about 50% mantle length; fin width to length ratio about 0. Mantle cylindrical, not tapering abruptly in front of fin; fin transversely rhomboidal; fin less than 50% mantle length; fin width to length ratio usually 1. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition auf dem Dampfer "Valdivia" 1898­1899, 18: 1­401. Preliminary description of two new species of Cephalopods (Cephalopoda: Brachioteuthidae) from South Atlantic and Antarctic waters. In situ observations on Brachioteuthis beanii Verrill: paired behavior, probably mating (Cephalopoda, Oegopsida). Brachioteuthidae 459 Brachioteuthis picta Chun, 1910 Frequent synonyms / misidentifications: None / None. Tentacular clubs expanded, parts of the club not clearly differentiated, with at least 50 minute suckers in the carpal region that extends proximally along the club. Primarily occurring in depths of 50 to 200 m but its depth range extends from 0 to 952 m, 700 to 952 m by day; the juveniles are epipelagic; 46 to 370 km from shore off Namibia. Spermatophores are transferred to the buccal membrane of the female and spawning is in the water column. Distribution: this is a circumglobal, oceanic species, distributed from about 30°N to at least 40°S to 45°S; distribution limits undetermined due to uncertain identifications in the literature. Remarks: Chun (1910) gives the type locality as Valdivia, but this is apparently an error. Habitat, biology, and fisheries: Epi- mesopelagic species, adults also in bathypelagic habitat.

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The higher pressure that is reached during ventricular systole is the systolic blood pressure; the lower pressure that is reached during ventricular dias- Heart Sounds Closure of the heart valves during the cardiac treatment effect definition ,cYcle produces two different heart sounds medicine to stop period . Closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves at the beginning of systole produceS the first heart sound ("lub") treatment 1st degree burns . The difference between the systolic and diastolic blood pressure is called the pulse pressure symptoms 8dpo . Cardiac Output- Cardiac work is measured by the amount of blood the heart pumps each minute (cardiac output). Peripheral vascular resistance is determined by arteriole vasoconstriction and vasodilation. This interrelationship can be expressed in the following equation: vascular resistance changes, blood pressure will also change. If cardiac output remains constant, blood pressure will increase or decrease in response to changes in peripheral vascular resistance. If the arterioles dilate; peripheral vascular resistance to blood flow will be decreased and=,blood pressure will decrease. With va- soconstrietions; there is an increase in resistance to blood flow, thus; blood pressure will increase. This response will shift blodd to better ventilated alveoli where carbon dioxide and oxygen exchange can occur. Blood flow through the skin, kidneys, visceral organs, and skeletal muscles is regulated mainly by the sym- Pulse the pulsation palpated with the fingertips over an artery represents the expansion and recoil of the elas: tic arterial wall and also gives a measure of the heart rate. With ventricular contraction, the ejected blood expands the walls of the aorta and is transmitted as a pressure wave. This pressure Wave cannot be felt in the veins or capillaries, because it has been damped out by the time it reaches these vessels. The pulse, should be described according to its rate (fast or slow), its strength (weak and thready; strong and bounding), and its rhythm (regular or irregular). In arterioles contained in skeletal muscle, beta-adrenergic receptors predominate, these arterioles dilate in response to sympathetic nervous stimulation; which increases blood flow through skeletal muscles: Blood pressure equals total peripheral resistance times Nervous Control the autonomic nervous system relates the activity of the visceral organs and the blood vessels. The autonomic nervous system also assists the body in adapting to changing physiological conditions. These centers receive messages from pressure receptors in the aortic arch and the carotid sinuses. These pressure receptors fire more rapidly when the arterial blood pressure increases. The cardiovascu7 lar centers respond to these rapid firing rates and stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system causing a slowing of the heart rate and a decrease in myocardial contractility; this in turn results in a fall in cardiac output. In addition, decreased stimulation of alpha and beta adrenergic receptors reduces arteriolar vasoconstriction and results in a decrease in total peripher- nervous systemthe sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. Almost all the organs of the body are innervated by both divisions; however, each division is antagonistic in action to the other. The sympathetic nervous system has two types of receptor fibers at its nerve endingsthe alpha and beta receptors: When the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated; norepinephrine is released to transmit the impulse at the nerve ending. There resistance: these two effects; decreased cardiac output and decreased peripheral resistance; combine to reduce the blood pressure to normal. In contrast, when the blood pressure falls, fewer messages from the pressure receptors reach the cardiovascular centers. Therefore, the cardiovascular centers increase sympathetic stimulation to the heart and blood vessels and decrease parasympathetic stimulation. Sympathetic stimulation of the beta receptors in the heart increases contractility of the ventricles. Deal creased parasympathetic stimulation, likewise, in- are also a few sympathetic nerve fibers that release acetylcholine. Blood flow may be regulated either by the autonomic nervous system or by internal hormonal mechanisms such as epinephrine. Because the heart and brain are very sensitive to hypoxia, blood flow to these two creases the heart rate, thus increasing cardiac output. Arterioles in the skin, kidneys, and visceral organs constrict in response to alpha-adrenergic stimulation. These-three effects,-increased contractility, increased heart rate, and increased peripheral resistance, combine to return the blood pressure to normal. Hypoxia-and-carbon-dioxide retention also influence blood pressure regulation by the autonomic nervous system.

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