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For example menstrual cycle at age 7 100 mg ardomon buy, evolution can occur when a physical barrier divides a population into smaller groups that can no longer interact pregnancy test accuracy discount 25 mg ardomon with amex. It is based on the thought that evolution happens when the genes in a population change over a long period of time pregnancy 2 ardomon 100 mg order with amex. The percentage of times any allele is in the gene pool is called allelic frequency womens health services buy ardomon 50 mg amex. This change can greatly affect small populations made up of descendants of a small number of organisms. For example, in Pennsylvania, there is a small Amish population of about 12 000 people. Of the original 30 settlers in this community, at least one carried a recessive allele that resulted in offspring with short arms and legs and extra fingers and toes. Mutation, genetic drift, and gene flow primarily affect small and isolated gene pools. Analyze On what population would genetic drift most likely have the greatest impact? Remember that a species is a group of living things that look alike and can mate with each other to produce fertile offspring. Speciation occurs when members of similar populations no longer mate with each other to produce fertile offspring. A new species could develop when part of a population has been geographically cut off from the rest of its population. An example would be when a river forms a physical barrier and divides a population in two. As populations become increasingly different from each other, reproductive isolation occurs. This happens when organisms that at one time mated with each other and produced fertile offspring are no longer able to do so. This can be because the genetic material of the populations becomes so different that fertilization cannot occur. Reproductive isolation also occurs if the mating seasons of similar populations are at different times of year. C Over time, the divided populations may become two species that may no longer interbreed, even if reunited. Any individual or species with a multiple (an extra set) of the normal set of chromosomes is known as a polyploid. But still others develop into adults that can interbreed and a new species results. Many flowering plants and some important crops-such as wheat, cotton, and apples-originated by polyploidy. Gradualism is the idea that species originate through a gradual change of adaptations. For example, fossil evidence shows that sea lilies evolved slowly and steadily over time. Punctuated equilibrium is a theory that speciation occurs quickly, in rapid bursts. Fossil evidence shows several elephant species may have evolved by punctuated equilibrium. Patterns of Evolution Biologists have observed that different patterns of evolution occur in different environments. These patterns support the idea that natural selection is important for evolution. Hawaiian honeycreepers are all similar in body size and shape, but they differ in color and beak shape. When a single ancestral species evolves into many different species that fit a number of different habitats, the result is called adaptive radiation. Divergent evolution occurs as populations that were once similar to an ancestral species change and adapt to different living conditions. Convergent evolution occurs when unrelated species live in similar environments in different parts of the world. Because they have similar environmental pressures, they share similar pressures of natural selection.

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Thislessinvasivetypeofprenataltestinghas been reported to have a detection rate of >99% for trisomy21andtrisomy18 womens health medical group fort worth ardomon 100 mg mastercard. It can identify risks related to family history women's health clinic kitchener 50 mg ardomon order with mastercard, maternal medical conditions women's health clinic norfolk ne generic 50 mg ardomon free shipping, and fetal and maternal chromosomal/genetic disorders that may result in congenital abnormalities women's health center tucson az ardomon 25 mg order. A simple screening tool called Before Pregnancy is available electronically at StudentConsult. Adequate prenatal care, including nutritional counseling, is essential for obtaining the best pregnancy outcomes. Early pregnancy complications, secondary to factorsrelatedtothemother,herfetus,ortheplacenta, occurinsomepregnancies. During follow-up visits, it is important to reassurewomenthattheirpregnancyisprogressingnormallyorinitiateappropriatetestingwhennecessary. Traditionally, women older than 34 years of age have been advised to have prenatal testing because they are at increased age-related risk for having offspring with chromosomalandgeneticabnormalitiesandtheriskof the more invasive techniques is less than the risk of findingabnormalities. Current guidelines therefore recommend that prenatal diagnostic testing with amniocentesis or Pregnancy, to many women, is one of the greatest experiences of their lives. Even before conceiving, a woman may contemplate or ask whether her child willbenormalatbirthandwhetherpregnancywillbe safeforher. Preconceptionandprenatalcounselingby 76 the well-informed health care professional can offer a sense of security to these women and deliver some of the most cost-effective preventive measures in all of health care. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader with a basic understanding of the C H A P T E R 7 Antepartum Care 77 appropriate evaluation and the optimal care that shouldbeprovidedwhenawomanisthinkingoftrying toconceive,orhasbecomepregnant. Organogenesis begins early in pregnancy and placentaldevelopmentstartswithimplantation,about 7daysafterconception. In addition, obesity has become a world-wide problemassociatedwithmetabolic dysregulation, and must be addressed before pregnancyifoutcomesaretobeimproved. By the time most pregnant women have their first prenatal visit, it is too late to address the risk of low birthweightandobesity,andtoreducetheriskofsome birth defects. According to one model, the major components of preconception care include 12 risk assessments and 6 health promotions andthesearesummarizedinTable7-1. Themajorproblemassociatedwiththeimplementation of preconception care is a lack of consensus on the necessary components of the care. For some, preconception care means a single prepregnancy check-up a few months before couples attempt to conceive. For others, preconception care should become an important part of comprehensive well-woman care, universally implemented from prepubescence to menopause. Inpractice,however,askingprovidersto squeezemoreintotheiralreadyhurriedvisitsmaynot be practical, and some components. Absence of any preconception care willmissallofthosepregnanciesthatareunintended atthetimeofconception(50%intheUnitedStates)but arecontinueddespitealackofplanning. In order to address these issues, Before Pregnancy is available electronically atStudentConsult. This type of preconception care should be started, especially in high-risk women. Prenatal Care the three basic components of prenatal care are (1) early and continuing risk assessment, (2) health promotion, and (3) medical and psychosocial interventions and follow-up. Risk assessment includes a complete history, a physical examination, laboratory tests,andassessmentofgestationalageandwell-being ofthemotherandherfetus(es). Healthpromotionconsists of providing information on proposed care, enhancing general knowledge of pregnancy and parenting, and promoting and supporting healthful behaviors. Women whose healthmaybeseriouslyjeopardizedbythepregnancy, suchasthosewithEisenmengersyndromeorahistory of peripartum cardiomyopathy, should be counseled abouttheoptionofterminatingthepregnancy. Reproductivehistoriesthatincludepretermbirth,lowbirth weight,preeclampsia,stillbirth,congenitalanomalies, and gestational diabetes are important to record because of the substantial risk of recurrence. Women withpriorcesareandeliveryshouldbeaskedaboutthe circumstances of the delivery, and discussion about optionsforthemodeofdeliveryforthecurrentpregnancy should be initiated. Additionally, the importance of screening women for domestic violence cannot be overemphasized. Standardized forms have been developed to facilitateoverallprenatalriskassessment,andthistechnology has been incorporated into electronic health records at some institutions. Review prior adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as fetal loss, birth defects, low birthweight, and preterm birth, and assess ongoing biobehavioral risks that could lead to recurrence in a subsequent pregnancy.

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Thus pregnancy yoga exercises ardomon 50 mg purchase with amex, Bonger identified many evils in the capitalistic systems which were responsible for generating crimes menstruation jelly like blood generic ardomon 100 mg on line. In fact pregnancy symptoms at 3 weeks buy 25 mg ardomon with mastercard, the theory of Radical Criminology is based on this concept which further explains that crime occurs due to the exploitation of the poor by the rich breast cancer essay buy ardomon 50 mg mastercard. Ecology of Crime: Ecology is the study of people and institutions in relation to environment. Topographical conditions also affect the incidence of crime in a particular region or 69 locality. After a series of researches Enrico Ferri, the eminent Italian criminologist analyzed the crime index of his country and concluded that in the same country the crime rate varies considerably from one region to another. Some typical crimes are more peculiar to a particular region than other parts of the country. It is well known that violating of customs, excise and drug laws are more common in border areas and coastal regions than in plains. Illegal felling of trees and violation of forest laws is an every day occurrence in forest regions. The impact of ecology on crime can apparently to be seen in dacoit-infested forest regions where opportunities for escape and avoid detection are plenty. Similarly, pilgrim places are the breeding ground for all sorts of anti-social activities such as cheating, stealing, exploiting, etc. The proponents of ecological theory attribute social disorganization as the main cause of criminality. They therefore believe that treating or punishing the individual offenders would do little to alleviate the problem and the solution is to be found in making efforts to stabilize the social organization and promoting community feeling, particularly among youths. As Durkheim rightly put it, the overall disorder and disorganization, social and personal, shifts behaviour in the direction of crime. The regional comparisons of crime rate in different parts of the country sufficiently indicate that certain crimes are peculiar to a particular location. It can, therefore, be inferred that ecology of crime consists in the study of influences such as neighborhood, population, topographical factors, etc. Commenting on this aspect, Donald Taft observed that "ecology of crime may be studied in terms of location of criminal or residences of delinquents or some supposed influence upon crime which has distribution in terms of space and topography". He further observed that criminals are often mobile and there seems to be a causal relationship between location of delinquency and the criminal. It may, however, be pointed out that ecology of crime need not be confused with the proximity of crime and social conditions. The predominant consideration in the ecology of crime is topographical conditions of different regions and their impact on causation of 70 crime peculiar to those places. Influence of Media the importance of mass media in influencing human mind has been repeatedly emphasized by some experts. Experience has shown that television and films have the maximum impact on the viewers due to combined audio-visual impact. Most of serials or films shown on television or cinema halls depict scenes of violence which adversely affect the viewers, particularly the young boys and girls who often tend to imitate the same in their real life situations. The rising incidence of juvenile delinquency is essentially the result of evil effect of violence and vulgarism and undesirable sex exposures depicted in movies or television. Likewise, pornographic literature also has an unwholesome influence on the impressionable minds of the youth which generates criminality among them. Most criminologists believe that films and television are major contributors to violent behaviour. A survey conducted by the Broadcasting Group of the House of Lords indicated that exposure to media violence was closely linked with aggressive behaviour. But Hagell and Newbury opposed the view that there was a link between violent media images and criminality after finding that persistent offenders watch films or television far less than non-criminals. Gillin has expressed doubt about any real link between media violence and criminality.

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There is also considerable evidence that modelling and parenting style play an important role in the transmission of anxiety patterns from parent to children in at least some cases (Silverman et al women's health clinic rock springs wy ardomon 25 mg fast delivery. An increased incidence of stressful life events and marital discord is associated with onset of anxiety disorders in some but not all children (Bolton women's health big book of exercises barnes and noble purchase ardomon 50 mg with visa, 1994; Klein menstruation not natural cheap ardomon 50 mg buy on line, 1994) women's health lexington ky generic ardomon 100 mg on line. There is a small and growing body of research which points to the effectiveness of family interventions in the treatment of anxiety disorders (Estrada and Pinsof, 1995; Dadds et al. Assessment In addition to the routine assessment protocol outlined in Chapter 4, the symptomatology associated with the diagnostic criteria set out in Tables 12. In the differential diagnosis of anxiety disorders in children it is vital to exclude thyrotoxicosis (overactivity of the thyroid gland), the symptoms of which mimic anxiety. However, in thyrotoxicosis there is a raised early-morning pulse, and T3 and T4 test results (which assess thyroxin levels) are typically abnormal. Referral to the family doctor or the paediatrician should be made to rule out thyrotoxicosis if it is suspected. Aetiological factors to consider in the clinical assessment of cases where anxiety problems are a central concern are set out in Figure 12. Predisposing factors In cases of anxiety both personal and contextual predisposing factors may be present. Important personal predisposing factors to consider in the assessment of anxiety include possible genetic factors as indicated by a family history of anxiety. An inhibited temperament, low self-esteem and an external locus of control are other possible personal predisposing factors deserving consideration in assessment. In conditions such as gastrointestinal illness, which involve significant abdominal discomfort, there is an added complication. The organically based abdominal pain may precipitate the onset of anxiety, and subsequently, when the organic factors which led to abdominal discomfort are no longer operative, anxiety-related abdominal discomfort may remain. Children with anxietyrelated discomfort may become anxious because they interpret their anxiety-related discomfort as reflecting a dangerous illness. For school-going children both bullying by peers and victimisation by teachers may precipitate anxiety problems, as may the occurrence of either intrafamilial or extrafamilial child abuse. A threat- and danger-oriented cognitive set, where neutral or ambiguous stimuli are interpreted as threatening, may also maintain anxiety problems. One important aspect of such a cognitive set is hypervigilance and frequent misinterpretation of non-threatening external events or internal bodily sensations as extremely hazardous. Such interaction patterns may be characterised by overinvolvement or confused communication, and either of these parent-child interaction styles tends to maintain rather than resolve problems. Parents who experience marital discord and who have unresolved conflicts about intimacy or power within the marital relationship may avoid discussing these conflicts but routinely argue about how best to manage their anxious child. It is not unusual for such triangulation to involve intense interaction between the mother and child, with the father becoming increasingly peripheral as the problems progress. Such patterns of parenting and family organisation may be associated with parental anxiety and a threat-oriented cognitive set. Such parents may have insecure internal working models for relationships, low self-esteem, low self-efficacy, external locus of control, immature defences and poor coping strategies. Parents may also become involved in problemmaintaining interactions with their children if they have inaccurate knowledge about anxiety and related psychological processes. Educational placements which are poorly resourced, and where teaching staff have little time to devote to contributing to school-based anxiety-management interventions, may maintain anxiety problems. It is not unusual for various members of the professional network to offer conflicting opinions and advice on the nature and management of anxiety problems to children and their families. These may range from viewing the child as physically ill, with secondary anxiety problems deserving careful management, to seeing the child as healthy but malingering and deserving a disciplinarian management. Protective factors the probability that a treatment programme for anxiety will be effective is influenced by a variety of personal and contextual protective factors. Other important personal protective factors include mature defence mechanisms and functional coping strategies, particularly good problemsolving skills and a capacity to make and maintain friendships. Within the broader social network, high levels of support, low levels of stress and membership of a high socioeconomic group are all protective factors for children with anxiety problems. Educational placements where teachers have a clear understanding of anxiety-related problems, and have sufficient time and flexibility to contribute to home-school anxiety-management programmes, contribute to positive outcomes for children with anxiety problems. Formulation Salient features from the assessment should be combined into a formulation which specifies the principal anxiety problems and the factors that maintain these.

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Definition of terms Malformation A malformation is a primary structural defect occurring during the development of an organ or tissue women's health center of langhorne ardomon 100 mg generic. An isolated malformation research on women's health issues safe 100 mg ardomon, such as cleft lip and palate menopause laguna playhouse 100 mg ardomon order with visa, congenital heart disease or pyloric stenosis womens health diet plan ardomon 50 mg buy fast delivery, can occur in an otherwise normal child. Most single malformations are inherited as polygenic traits with a fairly low risk of recurrence, and corrective surgery is often successful. Multiple malformation syndromes comprise defects in two or more systems and many are associated with mental retardation. The risk of recurrence is determined by the aetiology, which may be chromosomal, teratogenic, due to a single gene, or unknown. Minor anomalies are those that cause no significant physical or functional effect and can be regarded as normal variants if they affect more than 4% of the population. The presence of two or more minor anomalies indicates an increased likelihood of a major anomaly being present. Exomphalos may occur as an isolated anomaly or as part of a multiple malformation syndrome or chromosomal disorder Disruption A disruption defect implies that there is destruction of a part of a fetus that had initially developed normally. Disruptions usually affect several different tissues within a defined anatomical region. Amniotic band disruption after early rupture of the amnion is a well-recognised entity, causing constriction bands that can lead to amputations of digits and limbs. Sometimes more extensive disruptions occur, such as facial clefts and central nervous system defects. Interruption of the blood supply to a developing part from other causes will also cause disruption due to infarction with consequent atresia. As the fetus is genetically normal and the defects are caused by an extrinsic abnormality the risk of recurrence is small. Deformations usually involve the musculoskeletal system and may occur in fetuses with underlying congenital neuromuscular problems such as spinal muscular atrophy and congenital myotonic dystrophy. Paralysis in spina bifida also gives rise to positional deformities of the legs and feet. Oligohydramnios causes fetal deformation and is well recognised in fetal renal agenesis (Potter sequence). The absence of urine production by the fetus results in severe oligohydramnios, which in turn causes fetal deformation and pulmonary hypoplasia. A normal fetus may be constrained by uterine abnormalities, breech presentation or multiple pregnancy. The prognosis is generally excellent, and the risk of recurrence is low except in cases of structural uterine abnormality. Dysplasia Dysplasia refers to abnormal cellular organisation or function within a specific organ or tissue type. Most dysplasias are caused by single gene defects, and include conditions such as skeletal dysplasias and storage disorders from inborn errors of metabolism. Unlike the other mechanisms causing birth defects, dysplasias may have a progressive effect and can lead to continued deterioration of function. The commonest of these include cleft lip and palate, club foot, pyloric stenosis, congenital dislocation of the hip and congenital heart defects. Each of these defects can also occur frequently as a component of a more generalised multiple abnormality disorder. Congenital heart defects, for example, are associated with many chromosomal disorders and malformation syndromes. When these defects occur as isolated abnormalities, the recurrence risk is usually low. Identification of a birth defect syndrome allows comparison of cases to define the clinical spectrum of the disorder and aids research into aetiology and pathogenesis. Sequences the term sequence implies that a series of events occurs after a single initiating abnormality, which may be a malformation, a deformation or a disruption. The features of Potter sequence are classed as a malformation sequence because the initial abnormality is renal agenesis, which gives rise to oligohydramnios and secondary deformation and pulmonary hypoplasia. In holoprosencephaly the primary developmental defect is in the forebrain, leading to microcephaly, absent olfactory and optic nerves, and midline defects in facial development, including hypotelorism or cyclopia, midline cleft lip and abnormal development of the nose. In sirenomelia the primary defect affects the caudal axis of the fetus, from which the lower limbs, bladder, genitalia, kidneys, hindgut and sacrum develop. The names given to recognised malformation associations are often acronyms of the component abnormalities.

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P a North America L au Af ric n g North America a e ras a Eurasia a ia South America India d Antarctica wa n a A t us ra lia What life appeared during the Cenozoic era? The modern human species women's health specialists buy ardomon 50 mg free shipping, to which you belong women's health clinic phoenix ardomon 25 mg with visa, first appeared about 200 000 years ago menstrual moon cycle ardomon 50 mg order on line. B By 135 million years ago breast cancer 9 lymph nodes generic ardomon 50 mg with amex, Pangaea broke apart resulting in two large landmasses. North America Eurasia Africa South America Antarctica India t us ra lia A C By 65 million years ago, the end of the Mesozoic, most of the continents had taken on their modern shapes. Select one of the terms and create a drawing in the space below that will help you remember its definition. Use the following terms to fill in the blanks: sedimentary, radiometric, plate tectonics, Cenozoic. Section In this section, you will explore hypotheses that scientists have developed to explain how life on Earth began. On the lines below, list something in biology that you would like to learn more about. Then write a sentence explaining an experiment that you could use to learn more about the topic. When people noticed maggots on meat, it was easy to assume that the maggots came from the meat. Likewise, when people found baby mice in sacks of grain, they thought that the grain produced the mice. Spontaneous generation is the idea that something that is not alive can produce living things. An experiment, performed in 1668, showed that maggots were not produced by decaying meat. It was easy to conclude from this experiment that maggots do not come from spontaneous generation. With the development of the microscope, scientists could see that microorganisms live everywhere. Was there some vital force in the air that caused microorganisms to arise spontaneously? Identify Key People Underline the name of each scientist introduced in this section. Then highlight the sentence that explains the main contribution the person made to understanding the origin of life. However, in the mid-1880s, Louis Pasteur designed an experiment that disproved the spontaneous generation of microorganisms. Pasteur used a specially designed glass bottle that allowed air to enter the bottle, but kept microorganisms out. Scientists continue to look into theories and test hypotheses about what conditions existed on early Earth. Scientists hypothesize that two things happened before life could appear on Earth. The second is that the organic molecules must have formed into more complex molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Scientists think that the early atmosphere of Earth did not contain any free oxygen. Instead, the atmosphere was made of water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, and ammonia. How did this mixture combine and form the organic molecules that are found in all living things today? The chemical reactions made small organic molecules that ended up in the ocean when it rained. The Evolution of Cells In an earlier chapter you learned that prokaryotes are one-celled organisms that do not have internal membrane-bound structures.

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However women's health center utexas purchase 25 mg ardomon with amex, research has shown that a very religious person tends to forgive another person more easily than a person who does not have strong religious beliefs (Worthington women's health clinic orange park fl ardomon 50 mg overnight delivery, 2004) women's health sleep problems order 50 mg ardomon visa. Of course breast cancer quilt pattern 25 mg ardomon overnight delivery, there are many other teachings and belief systems, besides Christianity, that accentuate the value of acceptance, non-violence, love, tolerance, and forgiveness of each other. Buddhists and Quakers are especially dedicated to nonviolence and pacifism, as were the followers of Gandhi and Martin Luther King. Also, the Kung Fu and Yoga philosophies of detachment and acceptance of the inevitable have some similarity with forgiveness. Also, Carl Rogers and humanistic 144 psychologists advocated having "unconditional positive regard" or acceptance for every person. Similarly, Martin Buber (1970) prescribes having reverence for others, as implied in his title, I and Thou. Many cultures have believed that God is present inside every human and should be recognized (sometimes with a reverent bow). It may not be too far afield to even cite the scientist who sees the events of the physical and psychological world as the natural, lawful outcome of past events. Anger consists of our bitter responses to slights, insults, thoughtless words or deeds, hurts, injustices, rejection, deception, meanness, cruelty, etc. Following the initial offense, there is often an assortment of angry reactions which are repeatedly rehearsed and repeated to ourselves. Hatred is a memory that we are unwilling to let go of, to dismiss, to forgive, or otherwise put out of our minds (although these thoughts are frequently hurting and upsetting us much more than the person who originally hurt us). If we could forgive the person who has offended us, we would no longer be so angry and upset. One reason why forgiving someone is especially hard is because the forgiving process is all mixed up with other emotional reactions. Therapists helping patients with forgiving have found that it is important to clarify what forgiving consists of and what processes should not be confused with that activity. Forgiveness is not promising to believe the other person was not guilty or not responsible for the wrong things he/she did. Forgiveness is not rewarding or giving praise; usually no reward was earned and none should be given. You are not conceding that the wrong he/she committed is viewed as any less serious than it has been heretofore. It is not based on an assumption that the hurt will never be repeated on anyone but it implies that hope. Forgiveness is your action based on the decision to no longer hate the perpetrator (or to hate less); it is getting rid of your venom, of your hatred, of your fantasies of retaliation, of your upsetting thoughts, of your distressing emotions; it is your attempt to heal the hurt inside by yourself, to give yourself some peace (Smedes, 145 1984). The definitions above and these distinctions may help you understand what is involved in forgiving someone (or yourself). And, by understanding forgiveness better, you should be able to control it better. There are truly touching stories of people who have forgiven someone who committed horrible crimes or brutal abuse against them. There are people who have been unfaithful and, in that way, devastated their spouse, alienated their children and disrupted the entire family; yet they were forgiven (not usually, but sometimes). There are many cases where someone lost control and killed a child, a parent, or a loved one; and yet the family may forgive them. There are so many atrocities in war-loss of limbs, blindness, brain damage, post-traumatic stress disorders-and often the veteran forgives his/her government that sent him/her to war and may even forgive the enemy. Some people irresponsibly cause horrible things to happen in crimes and in accidents, such as drunk driving, but some of these people are forgiven. There is a wonderful mythical law of nature that the three things we crave most in life -happiness, freedom, and peace of mind - are always attained by giving them to someone else. They learn to control their fantasies of retaliation and their nightmarish visions of the awful events to the extent that their emotions do not dominate their lives. Still there are many people who carry bitter hatred against the person or organization that hurt them or their loved one for the rest of their lives. That is a great emotional burden that usually brings with it depression, stress, other mental disorders and often various physical ailments (high blood pressure, heart disease, and poor general health).

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Lombroso`s early conception included his belief in the similarity of the criminals could be savages breast cancer month discount 25 mg ardomon visa, the insane and epileptic persons menstrual migraine prevention buy 100 mg ardomon otc, and he believed that criminals could be distinguished from other people on the basis of anatomical oddities women's health new dimensions 25 mg ardomon overnight delivery, such as small craniums menstrual meme ardomon 25 mg order mastercard, big ears and abnormal secondary sex characteristics. Lombroso also believed women lacked the initiative to break laws, and therefore crime by a woman was a deviation from her basic nature. Genetic Inheritance At a later stage Lombroso himself was convinced of the futility of his theory. The search for obvious physical differences between criminals and non-criminals did not work. In his later edition of his book (The Criminal Man) hegave more credit to environmental influences such as the climate and local laws. He extended his theory of determinism to social as well as economic situations of criminals. His focus shifted to an approach proposing that certain inherited qualities predisposed certain people to act in criminal ways. Pedigree Analysis An analysis of ancestry done on certain families led many readers to conclude that a propensity for crime was inherited. Remarkable contemporary examples of crime that runs in families do little to resolve the question. Most of their crimes were of moderate severity, like robbery and burglary and two of them were charged with first degree murder. In fact, one or the other of the parents participated at almost all their sons hearings in juvenile courts; they made sure that the boys attended juvenile courts counseling sessions. Their mother was cooperative with the police and often helped locate her sons when they were wanted by law officers. But the authorities said that the parents did not supervise their children and the sons lacked role models. Despite the statistical improbability that ten out of ten siblings would be law breakers, the simplistic explanation- that they had each inherited criminal tendencies from their parents-is less likely than an explanation using social learning theory. Genetic Anomalies Another explanation given to support the theory of hereditary criminality is genetic anomaly such as an extra chromosome, that might lead to mental retardation or pathological behavior. Some time before, research seemed to implicate one particular genetic abnormality as a possible cause of some cases of anti-social or criminal behavior. Samplings of the genetic characteristics of men in prisons in the United States, Australia, and Great Britain showed that small percentage of these men, but a significantly greater percentage in the general population had an extra `Y` chromosome (Court-Brown 1968). The normal 46 person has 46 chromosomes per cell-22pairs of regular chromosomes, or autosomes, and two sex chromosomes. In the female both sex chromosomes are X` chromosomes; in the male they are X` and Y`. When the sperm fertilizes the ovum, the zygote receives a X` from the mother and either a X` or a Y` from the father. As the zygote begins its cell division, a chromosomal abnormality may occur; instead of producing two rows of 23each, the cell division may leave an extra X` or Y` chromosome in one row. Since the Y` chromosome determines maleness`, the idea developed that the extra Y` chromosome constituted super male, -a person more aggressive and therefore potentially criminal. The rate has also been found to be slightly higher among institutionalized mentally retarded males. For example; How does heredity interact with the environment to produce anti-social behavior? Constitutional (Body Type) Determinants: William Sheldon A different approach to crime causation, but one still linked to biological determinants is through a typology of body physiques. A typology is descriptive system in which all people are classified into limited set of categories. The person`s type supposedly describes a central or overriding characteristic of all aspects of individual`s life. Sheldon, a professor in Colombia University tried to establish a relation ship between body structure and behavior. He developed his ideas from the fact that life begins in the embryo which is made up of three different tissue layers, namely, an inner layer or endoderm, a middle layer or mesoderm, and an outer layer or ectoderm. He pointed out that the physiologically, the endoderm gives rise to the development of viscera, the mesoderm to bone, muscle and tendons of the motor organ system, the ectoderm to connecting tissues of nervous system, skin and related appendages. He observed that a person`s physical structure may be dominated by the basic characteristic s of any of these layers in varying degrees. The variations in body build may lead to the following three types of physical structures: Endomorphic Structure: the person high in endomorph is soft, round and overweight.